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About Greece

A wild rocky coast, orchards and vineyards, steep snow-peaked mountains, mild blue seas glittering with islands—these describe Greece. Occupying the southernmost part of the Bal­kan Peninsula, the Greek mainland is cut up by numerous mountains chains (covering three-fourths of the land); it has a long indented coast providing many ports and is bounded by three seas. On the southwest is the Ionian; directly south, the Mediterranean; to the southeast lies the Aegean. Included in the Hellenic Republic (Greece's official name) are more than 4,000 islands—with 2,000 in the Aegean group alone! With an area of 50,944 square miles (131,944 sq km), Greece is just a bit larger than England alone or the state of New York. The geography of Greece has influenced its history and culture profoundly since ancient times. The abundance of islands and excellent ports has made Greece a maritime nation, a trade base for all the great Mediterranean civi­lizations and still a major shipping power. The main ports are Piraeus, which services Athens; Alexandrolipolis near the Turkish border; and Greece's third-largest city, Salonika, near the mouth of the Vardar River in Thessaly. The diversified land falls into six sections. Thrace and Macedonia in the north of the pen­insula are crisscrossed by Greece's four major rivers (the Vardar, Strymon, Nestos and Mar­itza) and although none is navigable, cereals, tobacco and many types of fruit are grown on the rich plains at the river mouths. Thrace and Macedonia are further divided and subdivided by mountain ranges extending into Albania, Yugoslavia and Bulgaria. Here, between Ma­cedonia and Thessaly, is historic Mt. Olympus. Only very experienced climbers dare scale 9,754-foot (2,926-m) Olympus, still as formi­dable as when it was believed to be the home of Zeus, Hera and the other gods of Greek an­tiquity. The accessible lower slopes of Olympus provide panoramic views of the plains below and the Aegean Islands. Epirus is in the western part of the mainland, south of Albania on the Ionian Sea. It is ex­tremely isolated, for it is separated from the rest of Greece by the steep Pindus Mountains. Sheep-raising is the major occupation. The in­habitants of Thessaly, east of Epirus on the Aegean Sea, are far luckier than the dwellers in the hilly region to the west. Most of Thessaly is a vast fertile plain. It is Greece's most im­portant agricultural region. Large farms pro­duce cereals and cotton for export.

Central Greece is south of Thessaly and north of the Gulf of Corinth, which separates it from the Peloponnesus. Athens is located here. From 500 B.c. until the fall of Rome, this city was the focus of art and all branches of learning in the Mediterranean world, as well as the first democratic state. Appropriately, Ath­ens is the capital of modern Greece. Nearby Piraeus is the nation's most active port and its major industrial hub. Typical Mediterranean crops are grown in central Greece—olives, cer­eals and vines. In central Greece, too, is Mt. Parnassus, the mythical home of the Muses. These were nine sisters, each of whom was believed responsible for a specific art. Over 7,000 feet (2,100 m) tall, Parnassus is only five hours from Athens by car. At the foot of this stately once-sacred peak is the village of Delphi where in ancient times a famous priestess had her temple. Near Delphi is the Castalian Spring, sacred to the Muses, and the Corycian Cave which was ded­icated to Pan, mischievous god of the forests.

Most Greek cities have an "acropolis." Originally the word meant the high part of any city, but recently it has been associated solely with the splendid Acropolis at Athens. The Acropolis of Greece's capital rests on a butte 500 feet (150 m) above sea level and forms an uneven plain about 500 by 1,000 feet (150 by 300 m). The rocky peak on the right is Mt. Lycabettus. Until 1893 the Peloponnesus was a penin­sula, linked to the mainland by a narrow piece of land, but after the Corinth Canal was built in 1893, it became a large island. On the Pe­loponnesus, currants are raised and exported from the city of Patras. Figs, oranges, lemons, dates, olives and grapes are also grown, but the stony thin-soiled eastern region is suited to little except sheep- and goat-raising. Of Greece's many islands, Crete is the most famous as well as the largest (130 miles or 208 km long). Mt. Ida, where Zeus is said to have been born, is located on Crete, as are the ruins at Knossos and Phaestos of Europe's oldest civ­ilization, the Minoan. Crete is extraordinarily lovely. Steep mountains descend into the sea and are crowned with snow the year round. In spring the lower slopes burst into bloom with flowering anemones, cyclamen and hundreds of wildflowers. Patmos is famous, too, for here St. John wrote the Book of Revelation. The Ionian Islands lying off Greece's west­ern coast are densely populated by sailors, mer­chants and farmers. The mild Mediterranean climate produces citrus fruits and grapes for wine. However, the inhabitants of the various Aegean island groups are not so fortunate as those of the Ionian. On Euboea, the Cyclades, the Northern Sporades and the Dodecanese, ag­riculture is poor. Fishing and sponge-diving provide a living for some people, but there is much emigration from these islands to the mainland or to other countries.
The waters around the mainland and the is­lands, too, are full of life. There are more than 246 species, and these include some which are highly prized for eating: lobsters, shrimps, crabs, oysters and mussels. Unfortunately, since the 1960's, industrial pollution has killed off many of these shellfish. But the most fascinat­ing type of marine life to be seen are the dol­phins. These graceful creatures can be seen leaping through the air and tumbling about quite close to shore. The land boasts many shrubs and trees—slender white poplars, cypresses, chestnut, briar, pine, fir and, of course, lovely olive trees which are noted for their graceful way of grow­ing. In spring the mountains are bright with flowers, for both cultivated and wild varieties blossom in great abundance. Many of Greece's flowers are mentioned in classical poetry and mythology, but the most famous are probably narcissus, water lilies, primrose and camomile.
Everywhere in Greece the visitor will come across goats. A rare white goat, called an agrimi, is an unusual variety found only on the island of Crete. The agrimi is a domestic ani­mal, but another interesting feature of Greece is the large number of wild animals which roam its mountains and woods. There are wild boars, Awe-inspiring Mt. Olympus rises toward the sky between Thessaly and Macedonia. The abode of the gods is actually a range of ten peaks set apart by deep, desolate ravines. It isn't surprising that Olympus was considered sacred, for the range has a supernatural quality. Often the peaks are clouded by mist and seem to hang suspended between heaven and earth.
species, including birds of prey (eagles, hawks, vultures and falcons), pelicans, pheasants, par­tridges, nightingales, wild geese, ducks, storks and turtledoves. Many waterbirds are now threatened with extinction due to the draining of wetlands, in order to increase farmland. With its rugged mountain scenery, sleepy villages dotted with the ruins of ancient tem­ples, rich plains and bustling cities.

ANCIENT GREECE

The first Greeks about whom very much is known are the Hellenes, or classical Greeks. About 3500 B.C. these light-haired people in­vaded Greece from the north near the Danube River, overrunning the peninsula as far south as the Gulf of Corinth. The invaders conquered the Aegeans who were already living in Greece, took over their cities and set up a crude life. Each of many local kings was a war lord and plundered adjacent kingdoms at will. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey picture this lawless period, which is sometimes called the "Homeric Age."

Minoan Civilization: 6000-1400 B.C.

While the Hellenes were becoming estab­lished on the mainland, the highly advanced Minoan civilization flourished on the island of Crete. The Aegeans who lived there came in ships from the south around 6000 B.C. Cretan life was organized around beautiful cities dom­inated by palace-temples and ruled by priest‑ kings. The greatest of these cities was at Knos­sos, and the ruins of its palace contain actual bathrooms with modern drainage systems as well as brightly pigmented, decorative wall frescoes. King Minos is said to have ruled Crete at its peak and to have established the first maritime empire in the Aegean. Scraps of Cretan pottery have been found in lands as far distant from Crete as Spain. But Cretan civilization was de­stroyed by the cruder peoples on the mainland. In 1400 B.C. the palace at Knossos was sacked, and not long afterward conquering barbarians destroyed this remarkable island kingdom.
Mycenaean Age: 1400-1200 B.C. As a result of the fall of Crete and the con­sequent transfer of sea power to the mainland, Greece superseded Crete as a power in the Med­iterranean area. For a while there was consid­erable economic growth. Colonies were estab­lished on Cyprus and the coast of Asia Minor. But in 1200 B.C. this civilization, too, disap­peared under another great wave of invaders from the north.

City-State Civilization: 1200-338 B.C.

At first the invaders lived on isolated farms and each family or tribe raised its own food and made its own clothing, but gradually they came together in villages and towns. The social scale which developed between 1200 and 800 B.C. remained almost unchanged throughout the Classical Period, or 5th century B.C. At the top were land-owning aristocrats, next came free farmers, landless merchants, craftsmen and ag­ricultural workers and, last, slaves and serfs.
The city-state was a politically independent city which chose its own form of government regardless of how adjacent cities were orga­nized. This way of organizing community life, and the idea of democracy, came from the tribal customs of the barbarians. Although the Ae­gean peoples who built the earlier civilizations at Crete and Mycenae believed that the city be­longed to the king, the Nordic invaders believed that it belonged to all its citizens together and that they were responsible for the state.

From 800 to 500 B.C.

Greece's agricultural economy changed to a commercial one. The growth of commerce meant that merchants and bankers began to rival the landed aristocracy for power. Because of this, several types of government appeared in the various city-states. Some were ruled by aristocracies (groups of i rich landowners), some by oligarchies (in which landowners and businessmen shared power); others were democracies, and still others dictatorships. This variety affected Greece up until the 20th century. By 480 B.C. Greece was the strongest country in the Mediterranean area. That year it defeated the Persians (who had conquered much of Greece in 546 B.c.) as well as the Phoenicians. Because of its superior fleet, Athens became head of the Delian League (a protective mari­time federation which included 200 cities) and the most influential Greek city.
The 5th century B.c. is the great age of Athenian democracy. The Tholos at Delphi is a strangely beautiful, circular temple which was sacred to Athena. It fits so well into its wild natural surroundings that it is difficult to imagine Delphi crowded with people. But in ancient times it was a meeting place for pilgrims from all parts of Greece. Sometimes called the "Golden Age of Greece" or the "Age of Pericles," the 5th cen­tury B.C. was a time of great achievement in every field of human activity—government, philosophy, history, mathematics, medicine, mechanics, sculpture, drama and architecture. Pericles, who was in power from 461 to 429 B.c., was the century's most important leader, and under his political guidance all branches of learning and art flourished. Nevertheless, the 5th century ended violently with the Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.). Athens was defeated by its jealous rival Sparta. Internal disunity and the disastrous effects of war made Greece powerless against an outside invader, Macedonia. In 338 B.c. Greece was conquered by Philip II of Macedonia, the father of Alexander the Great, and remained politically dependent until the fall of Rome in A. D. 330. The Greeks made periodic attempts to seize independence, and when Rome attacked Macedonia in 200 B.c., Athens, Sparta and Rhodes supported Rome. They succeeded only in ex­changing one master for another. Roman Domination: 200 B.C.-A.D. 330 For more than a century and a half Rome permitted Greece a large measure of freedom, but in 27 B.c. the Emperor Augustus reversed this policy and declared all of Greece a Roman province called Achaea. Rome deliberately kept Greece isolated to prevent economic competi­tion, so Greece remained a poor country with­out any chance to build up its trade. The issue of Greek inder much of Europe. In 1827 B Russia (the Great Powers) vened on Greece's side. The of March, 1829, declared Gr established new national bou a monarchy under Prince Ott
The mighty fortress of the Knights of St. John at Rhodes recalls the days of the Crusades. The Knights were Crusaders driven from the Holy Land by the Saracens in 1291. They moved to Cyprus and then to Rhodes, which they ruled from 1282 until 1523, when the Ottoman Turks expelled them. The Knights were homeless until 1530, when the Holy Roman Emperor gave them the island of Malta.

MEDIEVAL GREECE AND TURKISH RULE
Byzantine Civilization: 330-1453

The Byzantine Empire was a continuation of the Roman Empire and its history is thought of as Greece's medieval period. The citizens of the Empire spoke Greek and were Christianized under Constantine the Great who ruled from A.D. 324-337. Guided by a series of wise em­perors, Byzantine life was internally stable and provided good conditions for the continued de­velopment of learning and art. Although By­zantine civilization was essentially Greek, Greece itself was overrun by barbarians during this period. The Byzantine Empire, too, was constantly under attack. During the 13th century much of Greece proper was captured by Venice, then a powerful maritime city-state. What remained was taken by the Turks. After repeated raids, the Turks finally seized Byzantium in 1453. This marks the end of the old Roman Empire, of the Byzantine Empire, and the start of a long period of oppression for the Greeks. Turkish Domination: 1453-1827
Economic depression and frequent wars and revolutions typify this period. To escape forced conversion to the Moslem religion and heavy taxation, many Greeks fled to other countries.Those who remained organized frequent revolts, often supporting Venice, who was at war with Turkey off and on until the Adriatic power was decisively defeated in 1669. During the 18th century increasing corrup­tion within the Turkish Empire, and wars which damaged the rest of Europe commercially, en­abled Greece to grow in economic power. Its merchant marine became first in the Black Sea. Its people became unified by their desire for freedom and a feeling of strong patriotism arose. Inspired by the ideals of the French Rev­olution, Greece attacked Turkey and won con­trol of the Peloponnesus, many Aegean islands and Athens and Thebes. The issue of Greek independence involved much of Europe. In 1827 Britain, France and Russia (the Great Powers) successfully inter­vened on Greece's side. The London Protocol of March, 1829, declared Greece independent, established new national boundaries and set up a monarchy under Prince Otto of Bavaria.
recalls the days of the Crusades. During the 13th century much of proper was captured by Venice, then a maritime city-state.

THE EMERGENCE OF MODERN GREECE

The monarchy set up by the Great Powers did not please the Greeks, for they wanted to rule themselves. While King Otto was away from Athens in 1843 a revolutionary group de­posed him and set up a provisional government. Unfortunately, this government did not act soon enough, and again the Great Powers selected a king. This time he was George I from the royal house of Denmark. To win acceptance he brought the formerly British-held Ionian Islands back into the Greek kingdom. Under George I, Greece had a constitutional monarchy with a parliament elected by male suffrage. A major problem during the 19th and early 20th centuries was the Megale Idea, or the de­sire for territorial unity. At the time of inde­pendence there were still 3,000,000 Greeks liv­ing under the Turkish Empire, and these people wanted to be united with Greece. Although the Greeks felt entitled to Thessaly, Crete, Epirus
The exploits of Theodore Kolokotronis (1770‑ 1843), a general in the Greek War of Independence, are the subject of many Greek folk songs. At the beginning of the 20th century Greece's typical internal political disunity continued to prevent it from unifying against an unwanted monarch. In 1909 a group of army officers ousted King George's two sons from crucial military posts and called on a popular Cretan politician, Eleutherios Venizelos, to help them establish a new government. Elections were held and Venizelos' party was overwhelmingly victorious. In 1911 the newly elected Assembly passed major constitutional revisions. But even with a relatively stable government Greece was unable to settle down to peace and economic progress. After the tiny state of Montenegro declared war on Turkey in 1912, Greece, Serbia and Bulgaria (the Balkan League) joined Montenegro and quickly forced Turkey out of Europe. Greece at last achieved the Me-gale Idea, for it won Crete, the remainder of Epirus and Macedonia. Later, as a result of fighting with the Allies in World War I (1914- 1923), Greece obtained still more territory.

Modern Greece

War-weary and consequently conservative in their political attitudes, the Greeks did not re­elect Venizelos and his Liberal Party after World War I. Instead, King Constantine, whom the Allies had deposed in 1917, was returned to power. He started an offensive war against Turkey and was badly defeated. As a result, he was forced to abdicate in 1921, though he was succeeded by his son, C ment of Constantine's much of the territory it of World War I. With the monarchy zelos again became act lieved a constitutional Ir best form of governmen King Constantine made izelos' proposal and for had feared, the rei It was replaced by a dictator lasted only briefly. In 1928 Venizelos sue ing the dictatorship, and to power. During his foi Greece enjoyed excellent an economic depression c defeated in 1932. After he fled from the country nestly to lead toward a st In 1935 further politica and dictator to seize cont.' Until the Axis occupatin Ioannes Metaxas ruled succeeded by his son, George II. In the settle­ment of Constantine's rash war, Greece lost much of the territory it had gained at the end of World War I. With the monarchy very unpopular, Veni­zelos again became active. Although he be­lieved a constitutional monarchy would be the best form of government, the reaction against King Constantine made the Greeks reject Ven­izelos' proposal and form a republic. As Ven­izelos had feared, the republic did not survive. It was replaced by a dictatorship which, in turn, lasted only briefly. In 1928 Venizelos succeeded in overthrowing the dictatorship, and his party was returned to power. During his four-year administration Greece enjoyed excellent foreign relations; but an economic depression caused Venizelos to be defeated in 1932. After an attempt on his life, he fled from the country he had tried so ear­nestly to lead toward a stable government. In 1935 further political chaos enabled a sec­ond dictator to seize control of the government. Until the Axis occupation in 1941, General Ioannes Metaxas ruled Greece with the methodstypical of a dictator. Although he was always unpopular, the Greeks were unable to unite ef­fectively against him. The Greeks fought boldly and courageously during World War II. Greece held the attacker, Fascist Italy, to a stalemate, but was conquered when Germany joined Italy. Until liberated by Britain in 1944, Greece was occupied by Ger­man, Bulgarian and Italian troops. Its victories against numerically superior Fascist forces and its continuous fierce resistance during occupation won world-wide admiration. After the war Greece was threatened from a new source—Communism. Although in 1946 a majority of the voters wanted to re-establish a constitutional monarchy under King George II, guerrilla bands protested violently. There seems little question that the agitators were Communist-led; in addition, poor economic conditions all over Greece provided a motive for revolt against any government in power. At first, Britain provided assistance for forces fighting the rebels, but as a war-torn country, it was forced to withdraw aid. The United States assumed Britain's role, but even with United States help, three years passed before the government was able to gain firm control. Marshal Tito of Yugoslavia played an important role in this conflict, for after his split with So­viet Russia, he closed the Yugoslav border to Soviet-inspired guerrilla bands.

By the 1960's Greece had achieved a stable government—in form, a constitutional monarchy. Legislative power resided in a freely elected parliament. Greece had made astonish­ing economic progress, too. After four centu­ries of foreign oppression and 150 years marked by wars and revolutions, Greece seemed near its goals—fulfillment of the Megale Idea and a strong constitutional government.
Then, following a series of parliamentary crises in 1967, a military junta seized power and suspended parliamentary rule, claiming these measures were necessary to prevent a left­ist take-over, and possible abolition of the monarchy. Later in the year, King Constantine went into exile in Rome after an unsuccessful attempt to oust the junta. In 1973, the monarchy was abolished and a republic declared. In 1974, the junta sent Greek officers into Cyprus to lead a rebellion of Greek Cypriots. Cyprus, an independent island repub­lic with a Greek majority and a Turkish minor­ity, had been enjoying an uneasy peace after years of civil strife. The attempted Greek coup had two unforeseen results—Turkey sent troops into the island to protect the Turkish Cypriots, and the Greek junta government in Athens was overthrown. Civil rights were restored in Greece and political exiles began to return there. War with Turkey was averted and Greece began a return to democratic government. Greece entered the 1980's in a fairly sound state. In 1979, it became the 10th member of the European Common Market, with full integration into that organization to take effect in 1981. A problem facing the government was a sharp rise in the migration of farm people to the cities, mainly Athens, and a consequent need for industrial jobs for the migrants. Restoration of democracy In 1975, following a referendum to confirm the deposition of King Constantine II, a democratic republican constitution came into force. Another previously exiled politician, Andreas Papandreou also returned and founded the socialist PASOK party, which won the elections in 1981 and dominated the country's political course for almost two decades. Since the restoration of democracy, the stability and economic prosperity of Greece have grown remarkably. Greece rejoined NATO in 1980. Greece joined the European Union in 1981 and adopted the euro as its currency in 2001. New infrastructure, funds from the EU and growing revenues from tourism, shipping, services, light industry and the telecommunications industry have brought Greeks an unprecedented standard of living. Tensions continue to exist between Greece and Turkey over Cyprus and the delimitation of borders in the Aegean Sea but relations have considerably thawed following successive earthquakes—first in Turkey and then in Greece—and an outpouring of sympathy and generous assistance by ordinary Greeks and Turks